by Mark Greener

In 1636, the Dutch sailor Antonie Caen probably became the first European to see an Australian black swan (Cygnus atratus). Biologists in Europe dismissed his claims: everyone ‘knew’ swans were white. But 61 years later another Dutch explorer, Willem de Vlamingh, brought three C atratus back to Batavia (now Jakarta), proving that not all swans are white. Indeed, two of the seven species of swan are not pure white. The South American Cygnus melanocoryphus has a black neck and head. C atratus is, beak aside, totally black.

The black swan is the official state emblem of Western Australia – and I think it should be paranormalists’ totem animal. To understand why means delving into the philosophy of science.

Science usually advances slowly and steadily, as researchers build cautiously and gradually on previous findings. In many areas, basic science progresses with all the speed of a particularly lethargic snail after a heavy night out. The dramatic paradigm shifts that transform our understanding of nature almost overnight – such as Copernicus’ discovery that the Earth orbits the sun, Einstein’s theory of relativity, and quantum mechanics – are all too rare.

The philosopher Karl Popper argued, somewhat controversially, that science advances when anomalies falsify previous theories. So, he suggested, rather than trying to confirm their theories, scientists should aim to find evidence that contradicts previous findings. Importantly, just one compelling anomaly is enough to derail a theory. A single C atratus falsified the idea that all swans are white, no matter how many times biologists find white swans in different locations.

Critically, the new theory needs to make specific predictions that scientists can test – such as that all swans are either black or white. A species of naturally green swan would falsify that theory. Astrologers and other ‘soothsayers’, Popper argued, make vague interpretations and prophesies. This vagueness means they could explain away events that might refute their theory.

Popper’s concept of falsification is, I suspect, one reason why many scientists dislike the paranormal. It’s a real threat to their worldview. One verified case of reincarnation would falsify the idea that life can’t survive death. One verified crashed UFO would falsify the idea that we’re not being visited by ETs. One genetically verified corpse would prove the existence of unknown large hominids in North America, Siberia or the Himalayas.

Popper’s concept of testability is, I suspect, one reason why many paranormalists dislike hard science. To bridge the gap with science, paranormalists need to formulate testable theories. In some cases it’s easy: DNA analysis should determine whether a cryptid corpse is new to science. It’s harder for astrologers or crystal healers.

In his classic book A New Science of Life (just published in a third edition), biologist Rupert Sheldrake proposes a ‘hypothesis of formative causation’. It’s a radical theory that borders, for many scientists, on the paranormal. According to Sheldrake, memory is ‘inherent in nature’. He argues that ‘Animals and plants draw upon and contribute to a collective memory of their species’. Crystals, molecules, even cosmic evolution, ‘follow the habits of their kind’. Critically, Sheldrake suggests several experiments that could help test his hypothesis.

I can’t help feeling there are several black swans in the pages of Paranormal: anomalies that could bring fundamental new insights to our understanding of reality. But anyone interested in the paranormal needs to formulate ways to test the anomalies – scientists won’t do it for them. It’s only by testing paranormal anomalies that we’ll determine which are C atratus, which are slightly mucky white swans, and which are just dirty ducks.

Mark Greener is an award-winning freelance journalist, specialising in health and bioscience. Mark is a former research scientist who has written widely on his life long passion: cryptobiology. He’s the author of nine books and his features have appeared in magazines worldwide. He lives between Cambridge and Ely and keeps a sharp watch for the fen tiger but has sadly never seen even a footprint…

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